Advanced
Data Structures Algorithms & System Design(HLD+LLD)
by Logicmojo

A programming paradigm known as object-oriented programming (OOP) arranges code around objects and data rather than processes or functions. Programming in C++, a flexible language, supports OOP's tenets and characteristics. The OOPs ideas in C++ include:

1. Classes and Objects: Classes serve as a model or template for the construction of objects. They contain both the functions that process the data (methods) and the data itself (attributes). The instances of classes that make up objects each represent a particular entity with its own distinct data and behavior.

2. Encapsulation: Encapsulation is the practice of grouping data and methods into a class while concealing the internal implementation details from access from the outside. By permitting restricted access to the data through public interfaces (public methods) established by the class, it encourages data protection and security.

3. Inheritance: Based on pre-existing classes (base or parent classes), inheritance enables the creation of new classes (derived classes). The base class's methods and attributes are passed down to the derived classes, which can also add to or change the functionality. Code reuse, abstraction, and the hierarchical organization of classes are all aided by inheritance.

4. Polymorphism: Through polymorphism, objects of several classes can be seen as belonging to a single base class. It enables the overriding of methods in derived classes, offering several implementations while preserving a constant interface. The flexibility, extensibility, and dynamic dispatch of method calls during runtime are made possible by polymorphism.

5. Abstraction: Abstraction concentrates on conveying important characteristics and behavior while concealing extraneous information. It permits the development of abstract classes or interfaces that define a group of related methods without supplying the implementation for those methods. Abstraction supports code modularity, flexibility, and reuse while assisting in the modeling of real-world concepts.

6. Data Hiding: Direct access to an object's internal data is restricted by data hiding, also known as information concealing. Only defined public interfaces are able to access the object's data, protecting the object's data's integrity and encapsulation. Data masking encourages secure data access while preventing unwanted adjustments.

7. Message Passing: OOP encourages object communication through message passing. In order to request or give services, objects communicate with one another by calling methods or sending messages. Message passing enables loose connection between objects and promotes the flexibility and modularity of programs.

These OOPs concepts offer a strong and organized method for developing software. They support complexity management, code organization, code reuse, and the development of scalable and maintainable software systems. The syntax and language properties of C++ make it possible to implement and use these OOPs ideas successfully.

The four foundations of object-oriented programming (OOP) in C++ are:

1. Encapsulation: To prevent unauthorized access to an object's internal information, encapsulation refers to the grouping of data (attributes) and methods (functions) within a class. This idea encourages information concealment and data protection. Encapsulation makes assurance that only controlled interfaces can access and modify an object's internal state by designating data members as private and offering public methods (accessors and mutators). Encapsulation makes it easier to maintain code, improves security, and makes it easier to organize and comprehend code.

2. Inheritance: Based on pre-existing classes (base or parent classes), inheritance enables the development of new classes (derived classes). Derived classes inherit the base class's characteristics and methods, allowing for code duplication and advancing the idea of a "is-a" relationship. The "class" keyword in C++, which is followed by a colon and an access specifier (public, private, or protected) defining the degree of visibility of inherited members, is used to implement inheritance. Code extension, modularity, and hierarchical class organization are all made possible through inheritance.

3. Polymorphism: Through polymorphism, objects of several classes can be seen as belonging to a single base class. Through the use of this technique, methods can be overridden in derived classes, offering several implementations while preserving a constant interface. Function overriding and function overloading in C++ are used to implement polymorphism. While function overriding enables derived classes to provide their own implementation of a base class method, function overloading permits the existence of many methods with the same name but different parameters. Increased code flexibility, dynamic method dispatch, and code reuse are all made possible by polymorphism.

4. Abstraction: Abstraction is the representation of important traits and actions while obscuring superfluous information. It permits the development of abstract classes or interfaces that define a collection of shared methods without supplying the implementation for those methods. Pure virtual functions and abstract classes are used to accomplish abstraction in C++. Pure virtual functions may be present in abstract classes, which cannot be instantiated but serve as placeholders for derived classes to implement. Abstraction encourages code modularity and reuse while aiding in the modeling of real-world notions. It enables programmers to concentrate on an object's core features and behavior without having to worry about implementation specifics.

Encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism, and abstraction—the four ideas that make up OOP—are crucial for creating well-organized, modular, and reusable C++ code. Software development can become more manageable, extensible, and effective by grasping and putting these principles into practice.

When an object belonging to a class is formed in C++, a constructor is a particular member function of that class that is automatically called. It is in charge of setting up any necessary components and initializing the object's data members. Constructors do not have a return type, not even void, and have the same name as the class.

Here are some essential details concerning C++ constructors:

1. Initializing the data members of an object: Initializing the data members of an object is the main function of a constructor. It guarantees that the object is created in a valid and usable state. When an object is created by utilizing the class name and parenthesis to instantiate it, constructors are automatically called. 'ClassName object;' or 'ClassName object(parameters);' are two examples.

2. Multiple Constructors: Each constructor in a class may have a unique set of input arguments. Overloading of constructors is what this is called. Objects can be constructed and started in a variety of ways thanks to overloaded constructors, offering flexibility and customization. The proper constructor is automatically called based on the parameters given.

3. Default Constructor: C++ offers a default constructor in cases where a class doesn't explicitly declare any constructors. The default constructor doesn't do any initialization and doesn't take any arguments. When objects must be constructed with no specified initialization requirements, it is helpful. However, the default constructor is not automatically constructed if a class defines any other constructors.

4. A parameterized constructor accepts arguments and enables the initialization of particular values for objects when they are instantiated. Typically, these constructors initialize the object using parameters that match to the class's data members. Constructors with parameters provide customized initialization depending on supplied values.

5. Copy Constructor: This unique constructor makes a new object by copying the values of an existing object of the same class. When an object is initialized using another object of the same class that already exists, it is called. The copy constructor makes sure a deep copy of the object is created, avoiding unintended consequences from data sharing.

6. Initialization Lists: To initialize the data members of a class, initialization lists are used in constructors. They offer a clear alternative to utilizing assignment statements in the constructor body to initialize data members directly. Initialization lists are positioned between the constructor's body and argument list, separated by a colon.

In C++, constructors are essential for ensuring that objects are initialized and set up correctly. They offer object creation with precise values, customized initialization, and object cloning. The initial state of objects is established with the aid of constructors, who make sure that they are consistent and useable when they are created.

Compile-time (or static) polymorphism and run-time (or dynamic) polymorphism are the two primary types of polymorphism in C++. Each type of polymorphism in C++ is accomplished via a unique technique and has a unique function.

1. Compile-Time Polymorphism: Function and operator overloading are used to accomplish compile-time polymorphism, commonly referred to as static polymorphism. It enables the compiler to select the proper function or operator based on the context of the function call by allowing numerous functions or operators with the same name but distinct argument lists or behaviors. The two types of compile-time polymorphism are as follows:

a. Function Overloading: Function overloading allows for the development of several functions with the same name but various argument values. The number, type, or order of the parameters determines how the compiler separates the overloaded functions. Based on the arguments of the function call, the compiler decides which function to call during compilation.

b. Operator Overloading: Operators like +, -, *, /, etc. can be overloaded with customized behaviors for particular classes thanks to operator overloading. When these operators are used to objects of the class, such objects can display unique behaviors by specifying the relevant operator overloading routines. For instance, overloading the + operator enables the addition of objects belonging to the same class.

Compile-time Hence the term, polymorphism is resolved at build time. Based on the context and the function/operator signature, the proper function or operator to be called is chosen during the compilation step.

2. Runtime Polymorphism: Virtual functions and inheritance are used to create runtime polymorphism, commonly referred to as dynamic polymorphism. It enables objects of various classes to be considered as belonging to a single base class. Runtime polymorphism allows for late binding of function calls, where the right function is chosen based on the object's actual type at runtime. The main components of runtime polymorphism are as follows:

a. Inheritance: Based on pre-existing base classes, inheritance enables the creation of derived classes. The attributes and methods of the base class are carried through to derived classes. Runtime polymorphism is dependent on the "is-a" connection created via inheritance. Code can act on several objects interchangeably by treating objects of the derived classes as objects of the base class.

The reason C++ is referred to as an object-oriented programming (OOP) language is because it incorporates the main ideas and traits of object-oriented programming. It enhances the C programming language's procedural programming capabilities and adds new features that make it possible to apply OOP ideas. Why C++ is regarded as an OOP language is as follows:

1. Classes and Objects: The core OOP building blocks of classes and objects are introduced in C++. A class is a type of user-defined data that contains data (attributes) and methods that work with those attributes. Instances of classes are objects, which represent particular things with their own distinct data and behavior. The class-object relationship makes it possible to reuse code and abstract away real-world ideas.

2. Encapsulation: Encapsulation, which entails grouping data and methods into a class and allowing for controlled access to an object's internals, is supported by C++. Through access specifiers (public, private, and protected), C++ enables encapsulation by enabling the programmer to specify the visibility and accessibility of class members. Encapsulation encourages data security, information concealment, and code organization, enhancing the security and maintainability of the code.

3. Support for inheritance: C++ allows for the construction of new classes (derived classes) that are based on older classes (base or parent classes). Code reuse and the creation of hierarchical relationships are made possible by the fact that derived classes inherit the characteristics and methods of the base class. Access specifiers and the keyword "class" are used in C++ to establish inheritance relationships. Code extension, modularity, and the representation of "is-a" relationships are all facilitated by inheritance.

4. Polymorphism: C++ features polymorphism, which enables objects of several types to be considered as belonging to a single base class. Function overloading and function overriding in C++ make polymorphism possible. While function overriding enables derived classes to provide their own version of a base class method, function overloading allows many methods with the same name but different parameters to coexist. Increased code flexibility, the ability to dynamically dispatch methods, and code reuse are all benefits of polymorphism.

5. Abstraction: C++ allows abstraction, which entails describing crucial characteristics and actions while obscuring extraneous information. To achieve abstraction, C++ offers pure virtual functions and abstract classes. A class that cannot be instantiated but might include pure virtual functions that derived classes might fill in is known as an abstract class. Code modularity, flexibility, and the separation of interface from implementation are all facilitated by abstraction.

Programmers can switch between the procedural and object-oriented paradigms because to C++'s combination of OOP features and procedural programming capabilities. The C++ OOP features improve the modularity, reusability, maintainability, and organization of the code. C++ is a well-liked language for OOP programming because it offers a strong and flexible framework for creating sophisticated software systems.

A class that cannot be created in C++ and is meant to serve as a base class for other classes is known as an abstract class. It acts as a model for derived classes, offering a standard interface and a set of pure virtual functions that the derived classes must implement. Class hierarchies, abstraction, and code modularity are all made possible by abstract classes.

Here are some essentials to know about C++'s abstract classes:

1. Cannot be Instantiated: An abstract class cannot be instantiated, which prevents the creation of objects belonging to the abstract class. This is due to the possibility that the abstract class contains pure virtual functions, which serve as defaults for functions that derived classes must override. As a result, abstract classes are frequently employed as base classes and give their derived classes a uniform interface.

2. Pure Virtual Functions: Pure virtual functions are frequently seen in abstract classes. The "= 0" syntax used to declare a pure virtual function in the abstract class indicates that the base class does not implement it. Pure virtual functions must be overridden by derived classes in order to offer their own implementation. Pure virtual functions create a contract that derived classes must adhere to in order to ensure that they offer the required functionality.

3. Derived Class Implementation: Derived classes that descended from abstract classes are required to provide definitions for all the base class's declared pure virtual functions. Compilation errors will occur if this is not done. Derived classes fulfill the contract stipulated by the abstract class by providing concrete implementations by overriding the pure virtual functions.

4. Abstract Class as a Base Class: When building a hierarchy of related classes, an abstract class is frequently utilized as the base class. Through its entirely virtual functions, it offers a common user interface and shared functionality. In addition to adding new data members and methods, derived classes can implement the pure virtual functions needed by the abstract class. This encourages modularity, the representation of "is-a" relationships, and code reuse.

5. Incomplete Type: An abstract type is said to be incomplete if it has at least one pure virtual function. As a result, it is not possible to generate objects directly from the abstract class. However, it is possible to refer to objects of derived classes using pointers and references to the abstract class.

In order to achieve abstraction and define a common interface for a group of related classes, abstract classes are used. They create a hierarchy of classes, enable code modularity, and offer a contract for derived classes. When it makes sense to organize related classes under a single base class and when it's required to insist that derived classes implement specific functionalities, abstract classes come in handy.

The use of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) in C++ has a number of advantages that aid in the creation of effective, modular, and maintainable code. The following are some major benefits of utilizing OOP in C++:

1. Modularity and Code Reusability: By structuring code into independent objects or classes, OOP encourages modularity. Objects provide a clear separation of responsibilities by encapsulating data (attributes) and functions (methods). Because objects can be easily reused in other areas of a program or in other systems, this modular architecture enables code reuse. Existing objects can be reused to speed up development, increase code effectiveness, and boost output.

2. Data Abstraction and Security: OOP makes it possible to express intricate real-world concepts and things as objects by facilitating data abstraction. Through clearly specified interfaces, objects expose just the most crucial data and functionality. Objects contain their data. In order to protect data, this abstraction obscures internal information and forbids direct access to the data. Methods are used to control access to data, preserving its integrity and preventing unwanted changes.

3. Code Maintainability and Extensibility: OOP encourages code maintenance by offering a structured and organized method for creating software. Maintenance and updates are made simpler because objects and classes can be individually changed without affecting other areas of the codebase. By enabling new classes to inherit from existing classes and expand on their functionality, OOP also facilitates extensibility. This lessens code duplication, encourages code reuse, and makes adding new features easier.

4. Polymorphism and Flexibility: One of the most effective aspects of OOP is polymorphism, which enables objects of various classes to be viewed as belonging to a single base class. Dynamic binding and late binding, in which the best function implementation is chosen at runtime, are made possible by polymorphism. Interchangeable objects are made possible by this flexibility, which also encourages code flexibility and makes it easier to write generic code that can manage many object kinds.

5. Code Organization and Readability: By organizing code into classes, objects, and methods, OOP improves code organization and readability. It is simpler to understand, maintain, and debug programs using this modular approach. Code readability is increased, and code documentation is made easier, when relevant class and method names are used. Because the codebase is easier to manage and work with, well-structured code also encourages team collaboration.

Efficiency in Software Development: OOP encourages the use of reusable code components, which eliminates the requirement for writing new code from scratch. Development time and effort are reduced when existing objects and classes are reused, letting developers to concentrate on specialized problem-solving rather than low-level implementation details. In addition, OOP's modular and structured design makes code integration, testing, and debugging easier, which improves the effectiveness of the software development process.

Overall, there are several benefits to employing OOP in C++, including increased software development productivity, code reuse, modularity, maintainability, extensibility, and flexibility. OOP offers a structured and organized method for developing software, making it simpler to create, comprehend, and maintain large codebases.

Even though Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) has many advantages for software development, it also has several drawbacks. The following are some disadvantages of utilizing OOP in C++:

1. Steeper Learning Curve: Compared to procedural programming, OOP introduces more concepts and syntax, which might make it harder for beginners to understand. Learning new ideas and design patterns is necessary to comprehend the tenets of OOP, such as encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism, and abstraction. The initial development process may be slowed down by this steeper learning curve, and developers switching from procedural programming may need additional training.

2. Overhead: OOP can result in some execution time and memory consumption overhead. OOP-created objects can also have virtual function tables and extra memory for dynamic dispatch in addition to their basic data. This overhead can affect the program's overall performance, especially in contexts with limited resources or applications that must run quickly. Modern technology and compilers have greatly reduced these worries, though.

3. There is insufficient performance optimization: OOP's emphasis on encapsulation and information hiding might restrict direct access to data and raise function call overhead. In some circumstances, compared to direct access, using the accessor (getter) and mutator (setter) techniques to access data can be less efficient. Although these abstractions support data security and integrity, they can impede chances for performance optimization, particularly in applications that are performance-critical.

4. Design Complexity: OOP promotes the development of class hierarchies with connections like inheritance and polymorphism. This encourages modularity and code reuse, but it can also lead to large class hierarchies that are difficult to design and manage. Class hierarchies that are poorly designed can cause tight coupling, code dependencies, and maintenance problems. To create a well-structured and maintained codebase, careful planning and design considerations are required.

5. Larger Memory Footprint: When compared to procedural programming, OOP can have a larger memory footprint. The storage of virtual function tables, pointer data, and other internal procedures results in an additional overhead for each object. This increased memory utilization can cause problems in programs with lots of objects or little available memory.

6. Run-time Overhead: OOP is more dynamic than compile-time resolved code, and this is especially true of the use of virtual functions and dynamic dispatch. Dynamic dispatch necessitates additional run-time function lookup and resolution, which can slow down execution. While this overhead is typically negligible in most applications, real-time systems or high-performance computing scenarios may raise questions about it.

It's crucial to understand that the drawbacks of adopting OOP in C++ are factors that should be evaluated against the advantages rather than being intrinsic defects. These limitations can be minimized and the benefits of OOP can be fully realized with careful planning, appropriate design, and a knowledge of the trade-offs involved.

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) is a framework for programming that can be used in a number of computer languages, not just one. Many widely used programming languages support OOP and offer built-in capabilities and syntax to make it easier to program objects.

A few examples of programming languages that enable OOP are as follows:

1. C++: C++ is a strong, flexible programming language that offers complete object-oriented programming capabilities. Classes, objects, inheritance, polymorphism, and encapsulation are some of the characteristics it offers. Both the procedural and object-oriented programming paradigms are supported by C++, and user-defined types can be created through classes. It is extensively used in game development, system programming, and high-performance applications.

2. Java: Java is a popular programming language that is independent of platform and built on the OOP tenets. Key OOP principles like classes, objects, inheritance, polymorphism, and encapsulation are all included in Java. It places a focus on simplicity, security, and mobility. A virtual machine (JVM) used by Java applications enables cross-platform execution without the need for recompilation. Web development, business apps, and Android app development all frequently employ Java.

3. C#: Microsoft created the cutting-edge programming language C#, which is pronounced "C sharp." Java has had a significant influence on it, and it supports the OOP paradigm. Classes, objects, inheritance, polymorphism, and encapsulation are features found in C#. The Unity engine is largely used for game development, web development, and Windows application development.

4. Python: Python is a well-liked and adaptable programming language that is renowned for being straightforward and readable. Python has support for OOP in addition to a number other programming paradigms, such as procedural programming. Python uses encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism, classes, and objects. Web development, scientific computing, data analysis, and artificial intelligence all make extensive use of it.

5. Ruby: Ruby is a scripting language that is dynamic and interpreted and fully supports OOP. Smalltalk and Perl are major influences on the syntax and features of Ruby. Classes, objects, inheritance, polymorphism, and encapsulation are all natively supported. Ruby is a popular programming language for web development, scripting, and automation because of its clean and expressive syntax.

Just a few programming languages that support OOP are listed here. OOP features are also included in many other languages, including PHP, Swift, Kotlin, and JavaScript. Various factors, including as project objectives, community support, performance considerations, and personal preference, influence the programming language used for OOP. Programmers choose the language that best satisfies their demands and objectives because each language has advantages and disadvantages.

Because OOP (Object-Oriented Programming) and C++ are separate ideas, they cannot be directly compared. While C++ is a particular programming language that supports several programming paradigms, including OOP, OOP is a programming paradigm that describes a manner of designing and structuring programs. The following are the main distinctions between OOP and C++ that we might emphasize:

1. Programming Paradigm: OOP is a programming paradigm that places an emphasis on structuring code around objects, data, and their interactions. It focuses on ideas like abstraction, polymorphism, inheritance, and encapsulation. Contrarily, C++ is a programming language that supports a variety of paradigms, most notably object-oriented programming, procedural programming, and generic programming. While C++ offers functionality for alternative programming paradigms, it also permits developers to apply OOP principles and techniques.

2. Language Features: C++ is a language with many tools and libraries that are designed to accommodate different programming paradigms. It is feature-rich and has a large range of libraries. C++ enables low-level memory manipulation, templates for generic programming, support for procedural programming, and more in addition to providing OOP features like classes, objects, inheritance, polymorphism, and encapsulation. On the other hand, OOP is a notion that isn't just confined to C++; it can be used in many different programming languages.

3. Syntax and Usage: The syntax of C++ provides a set of guidelines and practices for writing C++ code. It is peculiar to the language itself. Typically, classes, objects, and member functions are used when writing C++ code. To support OOP ideas, the language has keywords, syntax structures, and a robust standard library. The syntax and usage of OOP, on the other hand, may differ depending on the language because it is a larger notion that may be implemented in many programming languages.

4. Language Flexibility: C++ is a popular programming language that runs on a variety of hardware and operating systems. Because it offers a uniform language definition, C++ code can run on several platforms. OOP is a notion that may be used in a variety of languages with variable degrees of portability because it is not linked to any one particular language.

In conclusion, C++ is a programming language that offers tools and syntax to support OOP as well as other programming paradigms. OOP is a programming paradigm that focuses on structuring code around objects and their interactions. Although C++ allows programmers to design code that adheres to OOP principles, it also provides extra tools and freedom outside of OOP.

There are a number of recommended practices for C++ Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) that can assist guarantee clear, effective, and maintainable code. Here are some crucial pointers for implementing OOP in C++:

1. Adhere to the Single Responsibility Principle (SRP): Classes have to have just one duty or goal. Do not design classes that are in charge of numerous unrelated responsibilities. Divide intricate functionality into distinct classes, each with a clear and specific function. As a result, classes are simpler to comprehend and maintain, and code modularity and reuse are encouraged.

2. Implement Proper Encapsulation: Provide controlled access by enclosing data within classes, using well-defined public methods, and private/protected member variables. As a result, it is possible to validate data and enforce invariants while preventing direct data tampering. To reduce dependencies and enhance information hiding, refrain from disclosing internal implementation details.

3. Favor Composition over Inheritance: Choose Composition Over Inheritance When creating class relationships, choose composition (object composition) over inheritance (class inheritance). Code that is composed might be more flexible and loosely connected. By combining simpler objects, it makes it possible to create more complex ones, encouraging modularity and code reuse. If there are genuine "is-a" relationships, inheritance should only be used sparingly.

4. Use Polymorphism and Virtual Functions: Use virtual functions to make polymorphism and dynamic binding possible. To offer customized behavior, declare the required virtual functions in base classes and override them in derived classes. As a result, objects from various derived classes can be handled consistently using a base class interface. Modularity, flexibility, and code expansion are made possible via virtual functions.

5. Avoid Deep Inheritance Hierarchies: To prevent too complex and tightly connected code, keep inheritance hierarchies as thin as feasible. Deep hierarchies raise the possibility of introducing flaws and make maintenance more challenging. When dealing with complicated interactions between classes, try to maintain a more flat hierarchy or use other design patterns, like composition.

6. Use Smart Pointers to Manage Memory: Use smart pointers to manage memory and prevent manual memory management problems like memory leaks and dangling pointers, such as "std::shared_ptr" and "std::unique_ptr." Automatic memory deallocation is handled via smart pointers, ensuring proper memory management and enhancing code robustness.

7. Limit the use of Global State and Global Variables: Global state and global variables can introduce hidden dependencies and make code hard to maintain and reason about. Instead, utilize suitable access control techniques and encapsulate state within objects.

8. Handle Exception managing Correctly: When managing uncommon circumstances, such as incorrect conditions or unexpected behavior, use exception handling. To maintain code integrity and stop resource leaks, adhere to exception safety principles and make sure adequate resource cleanup occurs during exception processing.

9. Adhere to Naming Conventions: Give classes, variables, and functions names that are relevant and descriptive. To increase the readability and maintainability of your code, stick to consistent naming standards. For classes, use CamelCase or underscore-separated naming conventions, and select descriptive names that make clear what the variables' and functions' purposes are.

10. Write Clear and Concise Documentation: Document your code to make it simpler to comprehend and utilize for other developers (as well as yourself). Class interfaces, function contracts, and any presumptions or needs should all be explained in detail. To make it easier to understand and collaborate on the code, properly explain class relationships, dependencies, and usage rules.

You may use OOP in C++ to develop code that is clear, effective, and easy to maintain by adhering to these best practices. By encouraging code modularity, reusability, flexibility, and simplicity of maintenance, these standards help create software that is more reliable and scalable.

Classes and objects, which encapsulate data and activity, are the foundation of the object-oriented programming (OOP) paradigm. OOP provides an organized method for developing software by classifying code into reusable parts. Here is a thorough description of OOP's structure:

1. Class: The idea of a class is the foundation of OOP. An object's structure and behavior are specified by a class, which serves as a blueprint or template. It acts as a guide for making specific kinds of items. A class contains both the operations on the data (methods) and the data itself (attributes). It specifies the traits and actions that objects belonging to the class will exhibit.

2. Object: An object is a class instance. It depicts a particular thing or thing made out of a class blueprint. The methods described in the class can be called by objects, which have their own set of data values stored in their attributes, to carry out operations. Each item is autonomous and has a distinct identity, state, and behavior.

3. Attributes (Data Members): Also referred to as data members or fields, attributes represent the information related to an object. They specify an object's status or properties. Data types for attributes include numbers, texts, booleans, and even other objects. Since each object in a class has its own set of attribute values, objects can have different data while still adhering to the class's stated structure and behavior.

4. Methods (Member Functions): A class's defined functions are referred to as methods or member functions. They specify the actions or behaviors that objects within the class are capable of. The attributes of the object can be modified and processed via methods, which work on the object's data. Objects can invoke methods, which carry out operations, produce results, or alter the state of the object.

5. Encapsulation: Encapsulation is the practice of grouping data and methods into a class and controlling access to the class's internal information. The use of controlled interfaces (methods) to access and modify an object's data is ensured by encapsulation. It encourages information concealment, data security, and code organization. Encapsulation improves the code's capacity to be maintained and reused while also enabling future adjustments without affecting related programs.

6. Inheritance: An inheritance mechanism enables the development of new classes (derived or child classes) from parent or base classes that already exist. Derived classes expand and specialize the functionality of the base class by inheriting its attributes and methods. Code reuse, modularity, and the representation of "is-a" relationships are all made possible through inheritance. Derived classes have the ability to change the behavior of inherited members by adding new attributes and methods.

7. Polymorphism: Through polymorphism, objects of several classes can be seen as belonging to a single base class. Dynamic binding and late binding are made possible via polymorphism, where the right function implementation is chosen at runtime based on the actual type of the object. Interchangeable objects are made possible by polymorphism, which also encourages code flexibility and makes it easier to write generic code that can manage many object types.

8. Abstraction: Abstraction is the representation of fundamental characteristics and actions while obscuring extraneous information. A common set of methods can be defined via abstract classes or interfaces without their implementation being provided. While interfaces specify a set of method signatures, abstract classes provide a contract for derived classes. Code modularity, flexibility, and reuse are all facilitated by abstraction.

Software development can be done in a disciplined manner because to OOP's structure. Data encapsulation, code reuse, modularity, and code flexibility are all made possible by the organization of the code into classes and objects. Developers can construct more streamlined, scalable, and maintainable software systems by employing the OOP structure.